Why is cancer called cancer? We need to go back to Greco-Roman times for the answer

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One of the earliest descriptions of someone with cancer comes from the fourth century BC. Satyrus, tyrant of the city of Heracleia on the Black Sea, developed a cancer between his groin and scrotum. As the cancer spread, Satyrus had ever greater pains. He was unable to sleep and had convulsions.

Advanced cancers in that part of the body were regarded as inoperable, and there were no drugs strong enough to alleviate the agony. So doctors could do nothing. Eventually, the cancer took Satyrus’ life at the age of 65.

Cancer was already well known in this period. A text written in the late fifth or early fourth century BC, called Diseases of Women, described how breast cancer develops:

hard growths form […] out of them hidden cancers develop […] pains shoot up from the patients’ breasts to their throats, and around their shoulder blades […] such patients become thin through their whole body […] breathing decreases, the sense of smell is lost […]

Other medical works of this period describe different sorts of cancers. A woman from the Greek city of Abdera died from a cancer of the chest; a man with throat cancer survived after his doctor burned away the tumour.

Where does the word ‘cancer’ come from?

Galen, the physician
Why does the word ‘cancer’ have its roots in the ancient Greek and Latin words for crab? The physician Galen offers one explanation. Pierre Roche Vigneron/Wikimedia

The word cancer comes from the same era. In the late fifth and early fourth century BC, doctors were using the word karkinos – the ancient Greek word for crab – to describe malignant tumours. Later, when Latin-speaking doctors described the same disease, they used the Latin word for crab: cancer. So, the name stuck.

Even in ancient times, people wondered why doctors named the disease after an animal. One explanation was the crab is an aggressive animal, just as cancer can be an aggressive disease; another explanation was the crab can grip one part of a person’s body with its claws and be difficult to remove, just as cancer can be difficult to remove once it has developed. Others thought it was because of the appearance of the tumour.

The physician Galen (129-216 AD) described breast cancer in his work A Method of Medicine to Glaucon, and compared the form of the tumour to the form of a crab:

We have often seen in the breasts a tumour exactly like a crab. Just as that animal has feet on either side of its body, so too in this disease the veins of the unnatural swelling are stretched out on either side, creating a form similar to a crab.

Not everyone agreed what caused cancer

Bust of physician Erasistratus
The physician Erasistratus didn’t think black bile was to blame. Didier Descouens/Musée Ingres-Bourdelle/Wikimedia, CC BY-SA

In the Greco-Roman period, there were different opinions about the cause of cancer.

According to a widespread ancient medical theory, the body has four humours: blood, yellow bile, phlegm and black bile. These four humours need to be kept in a state of balance, otherwise a person becomes sick. If a person suffered from an excess of black bile, it was thought this would eventually lead to cancer.

The physician Erasistratus, who lived from around 315 to 240 BC, disagreed. However, so far as we know, he did not offer an alternative explanation.

How was cancer treated?

Cancer was treated in a range of different ways. It was thought that cancers in their early stages could be cured using medications.

These included drugs derived from plants (such as cucumber, narcissus bulb, castor bean, bitter vetch, cabbage); animals (such as the ash of a crab); and metals (such as arsenic).

Galen claimed that by using this sort of medication, and repeatedly purging his patients with emetics or enemas, he was sometimes successful at making emerging cancers disappear. He said the same treatment sometimes prevented more advanced cancers from continuing to grow. However, he also said surgery is necessary if these medications do not work.

Surgery was usually avoided as patients tended to die from blood loss. The most successful operations were on cancers of the tip of the breast. Leonidas, a physician who lived in the second and third century AD, described his method, which involved cauterising (burning):

I usually operate in cases where the tumours do not extend into the chest […] When the patient has been placed on her back, I incise the healthy area of the breast above the tumour and then cauterize the incision until scabs form and the bleeding is stanched. Then I incise again, marking out the area as I cut deeply into the breast, and again I cauterize. I do this [incising and cauterizing] quite often […] This way the bleeding is not dangerous. After the excision is complete I again cauterize the entire area until it is dessicated.

Cancer was generally regarded as an incurable disease, and so it was feared. Some people with cancer, such as the poet Silius Italicus (26-102 AD), died by suicide to end the torment.

Patients would also pray to the gods for hope of a cure. An example of this is Innocentia, an aristocratic lady who lived in Carthage (in modern-day Tunisia) in the fifth century AD. She told her doctor divine intervention had cured her breast cancer, though her doctor did not believe her.

Ancient city of Carthage
Innocentia from Carthage, in modern-day Tunisia, believed divine intervention cured her breast cancer. Valery Bareta/Shutterstock

From the past into the future

We began with Satyrus, a tyrant in the fourth century BC. In the 2,400 years or so since then, much has changed in our knowledge of what causes cancer, how to prevent it and how to treat it. We also know there are more than 200 different types of cancer. Some people’s cancers are so successfully managed, they go on to live long lives.

But there is still no general “cure for cancer”, a disease that about one in five people develop in their lifetime. In 2022 alone, there were about 20 million new cancer cases and 9.7 million cancer deaths globally. We clearly have a long way to go.

Konstantine Panegyres, McKenzie Postdoctoral Fellow, Historical and Philosophical Studies, The University of Melbourne

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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  • What’s the difference between heat exhaustion and heat stroke? One’s a medical emergency

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    When British TV doctor Michael Mosley died last year in Greece after walking in extreme heat, local police said “heat exhaustion” was a contributing factor.

    Since than a coroner could not find a definitive cause of death but said this was most likely due to an un-identified medical reason or heat stroke.

    Heat exhaustion and heat stroke are two illnesses that relate to heat.

    So what’s the difference?

    Studio Nut/Shutterstock

    A spectrum of conditions

    Heat-related illnesses range from mild to severe. They’re caused by exposure to excessive heat, whether from hot conditions, physical exertion, or both. The most common ones include:

    • heat oedema: swelling of the hands, feet and ankles
    • heat cramps: painful, involuntary muscle spasms usually after exercise
    • heat syncope: fainting due to overheating
    • heat exhaustion: when the body loses water due to excessive sweating, leading to a rise in core body temperature (but still under 40°C). Symptoms include lethargy, weakness and dizziness, but there’s no change to consciousness or mental clarity
    • heat stroke: a medical emergency when the core body temperature is over 40°C. This can lead to serious problems related to the nervous system, such as confusion, seizures and unconsciousness including coma, leading to death.

    As you can see from the diagram below, some symptoms of heat stroke and heat exhaustion overlap. This makes it hard to recognise the difference, even for medical professionals.

    Heat exhaustion vs heat stroke venn diagram
    CC BY-SA

    How does this happen?

    The human body is an incredibly efficient and adaptable machine, equipped with several in-built mechanisms to keep our core temperature at an optimal 37°C.

    But in healthy people, regulation of body temperature begins to break down when it’s hotter than about 31°C with 100% humidity (think Darwin or Cairns) or about 38°C with 60% humidity (typical of other parts of Australia in summer).

    This is because humid air makes it harder for sweat to evaporate and take heat with it. Without that cooling effect, the body starts to overheat.

    Once the core temperature rises above 37°C, heat exhaustion can set in, which can cause intense thirst, weakness, nausea and dizziness.

    If the body heat continues to build and the core body temperature rises above 40°C, a much more severe heat stroke could begin. At this point, it’s a life-threatening emergency requiring immediate medical attention.

    At this temperature, our proteins start to denature (like an egg on a hotplate) and blood flow to the intestines stops. This makes the gut very leaky, allowing harmful substances such as endotoxins (toxic substances in some bacteria) and pathogens (disease causing microbes) to leak into the bloodstream.

    The liver can’t detoxify these fast enough, leading to the whole body becoming inflamed, organs failing, and in the worst-case scenario, death.

    Who’s most at risk?

    People doing strenuous exercise, especially if they’re not in great shape, are among those at risk of heat exhaustion or heat stroke. Others at risk include those exposed to high temperatures and humidity, particularly when wearing heavy clothing or protective gear.

    Outdoor workers such as farmers, firefighters and construction workers are at higher risk too. Certain health conditions, such as diabetes, heart disease, or lung conditions (such as COPD or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and people taking blood pressure medications, can also be more vulnerable.

    Adults over 65, infants and young children are especially sensitive to heat as they are less able to physically cope with fluctuations in heat and humidity.

    Firefighters holding hose, aimed at bushfire
    Firefighters are among those at risk of heat-related illness. structuresxx/Shutterstock

    How are these conditions managed?

    The risk of serious illness or death from heat-related conditions is very low if treatment starts early.

    For heat exhaustion, have the individual lie down in a cool, shady area, loosen or remove excess clothing, and cool them by fanning, moistening their skin, or immersing their hands and feet in cold water.

    As people with heat exhaustion almost always are dehydrated and have low electrolytes (certain minerals in the blood), they will usually need to drink fluids.

    However, emergency hospital care is essential for heat stroke. In hospital, health professionals will focus on stabilising the patient’s:

    • airway (ensure no obstructions, for instance, vomit)
    • breathing (look for signs of respiratory distress or oxygen deprivation)
    • circulation (check pulse, blood pressure and signs of shock).

    Meanwhile, they will use rapid-cooling techniques including immersing the whole body in cold water, or applying wet ice packs covering the whole body.

    Take home points

    Heat-related illnesses, such as heat stroke and heat exhaustion, are serious health conditions that can lead to severe illness, or even death.

    With climate change, heat-related illness will become more common and more severe. So recognising the early signs and responding promptly are crucial to prevent serious complications.

    Matthew Barton, Senior lecturer, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Griffith University and Michael Todorovic, Associate Professor of Medicine, Bond University

    This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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  • Wanna read more?

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    You’ve Got Questions? We’ve Got Answers!

    Q: Tips for reading more and managing time for it?

    A: We talked about this a little bit in yesterday’s edition, so you may have seen that, but aside from that:

    • If you don’t already have one, consider getting a Kindle or similar e-reader. They’re very convenient, and also very light and ergonomicno more wrist strain as can occur with physical books. No more eye-strain, either!
    • Consider making reading a specific part of your daily routine. A chapter before bed can be a nice wind-down, for instance! What’s important is it’s a part of your day that’ll always, or at least almost always, allow you to do a little reading.
    • If you drive, walk, run, or similar each day, a lot of people find that’s a great time to listen to an audiobook. Please be safe, though!
    • If your lifestyle permits such, a “reading retreat” can be a wonderful vacation! Even if you only “retreat” to your bedroom, the point is that it’s a weekend (or more!) that you block off from all other commitments, and curl up with the book(s) of your choice.

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  • How Not To Die – by Dr. Michael Greger

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    We previously reviewed this book some years ago, but we’re revisiting it now because:

    1. It really is a book that should be in every healthspan-enjoyer’s collection
    2. Our book reviews back then were not as comprehensive as now (though we still generally try to fit into the “it takes about one minute to read this review” idea, sometimes we’ll spend a little extra time).

    Dr. Greger (of “Dr. Greger’s Daily Dozen” fame) outlines for us in cold hard facts and stats what’s most likely to be our cause of death. While this is not a cheery premise for a book, he then sets out to work back from there—what could have prevented those specific things?

    Thus, while the book doesn’t confer immortality (the title is not “how to not die”, after all), it does teach us how not to die—i.e, from heart disease, lung diseases, brain diseases, digestive cancers, infections, diabetes, high blood pressure, liver disease, blood cancers, kidney disease, breast cancer, suicidal depression, prostate cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and even iatrogenic causes.

    This it does with a lot of solid science, explained for the layperson, and/but without holding back when it comes to big words, and a lot of them, at that. If you want to add in daily exercises, just lifting the book could be a start; weighing in at 678 pages, it’s an information-dense tome that’s more likely to be sifted through than read cover-to-cover.

    The style is thus dense science somewhat editorialized for lay readability, and well-evidenced with around 3,000 citations. That’s not a typo; there are 178 pages of bibliography at the back with about 15–20 scientific references per page.

    In terms of practical use, he does also devote chapters to that, it’s not just all textbook. Indeed, he discusses the reasonings behind the items, portion sizes, and quantities of his “daily dozen” foods, so that the reader will understand how much bang-for-buck they deliver, and then it’ll seem a lot less like an arbitrary list, and more likely to be adopted and maintained.

    Bottom line: if you care about not getting life-threatening illnesses (which at the end of the day, come to most people at some point), then this book is a must-read.

    Click here to check out How Not To Die, and live well!

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  • How To Get Your First Pull-Up

    10almonds is reader-supported. We may, at no cost to you, receive a portion of sales if you purchase a product through a link in this article.

    Pull-ups are a great compound exercise that works most of the upper body. However, it can be frustrating for many, if unable to do more than dangle and struggle while not going anywhere. That’s not actually bad, by the way! Of course it’s not great athletic performance, but in terms of exercise, “dangling and struggling while not going anywhere” is an isometric exercise that has plenty of benefits of its own. However, for those who would rather go up in the world, personal trainer Meg Gallagher shows the way:

    The Only Way Is Up?

    Gallagher offers a few methods; the first is simply an improvement on the “dangling and struggling while not going anywhere” method, but doing it with good form. It’s called the…

    Hollow body hold:

    • Hang from the bar with legs and feet together.
    • Maintain a posterior pelvic tilt (i.e. don’t let your hips roll forwards, and don’t let your butt stick out more than is necessary by mere virtue of having a butt)
    • Engage your core by shortening the space between your ribs and pelvis.
    • Turn on your abs and lats, with your head slightly behind the bar.
    • Practice the hollow body hang instead of dead hangs to build grip and core strength.

    Another method is now moving on from the hollow body hold, and shows that in fact, up is not the only way. It’s called…

    Negative pull-ups:

    • Jump up to get your chin over the bar, then slowly lower yourself in a controlled manner.
    • Prioritize negative pull-ups over other exercises to build strength.
    • You can use modifications like resistance bands or feet assistance if necessary to extend the duration of your negative pull-up, but these are “crutches”, so try to move on from them as soon as you reasonably can—same if your gym has an “assisted pull-up” machine, consisting of a moving platform with a variable counterweight, mimicking how a pull-up would feel if your body were lighter.
    • Practice resisting throughout the entire range of motion.

    To give a sense of direction, Gallagher offers the following program:

    • On day 1, test how long you can resist the negative pull-up (e.g., 10 seconds).
    • For each session, multiply your time by 2 (e.g., 10 seconds × 2 = 20 seconds total).
    • Break the total volume into as many sets as needed (e.g., 2 sets of 10 seconds or 4 sets of 5 seconds).
    • After each session, add 2 seconds to the total volume for the next session.
    • Aim for 3 sessions per week for 3–4 weeks, increasing by 2 seconds each session.
    • When you reach about 25 seconds, you should be close to performing your first pull-up.

    For more on all of this, plus a few other things to try, plus visual demonstrations, enjoy:

    Click Here If The Embedded Video Doesn’t Load Automatically!

    Want to learn more?

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    Take care!

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  • Mind Gym – by Gary Mack and David Casstevens

    10almonds is reader-supported. We may, at no cost to you, receive a portion of sales if you purchase a product through a link in this article.

    While this book seems to be mostly popular amongst young American college athletes and those around them (coaches, parents, etc) its applicability is a lot wider than that.

    The thing is, as this book details, we don’t have to settle for less than optimal in our training—whatever “optimal” means for us, at any stage of life.

    The style is largely narrative, and conveys a lot of ideas through anecdotes. They are probably true, but whether they occured entirely as-written or have been polished or embellished is not so important, as to to give food for thought, and reflection on how we can hone what we’re doing to work the best for us.

    Nor is it just a long pep-talk, though it certainly has a motivational aspect. But rather, it covers also such things as the seven critical areas that we need to excel at if we want to be mentally robust, and—counterintuitively—the value of slowing down sometimes. The authors also talk about the importance of love, labor, and ongoing learning if we want a fulfilled life.

    Bottom line: if you are engaged with any sport or sport-like endeavor that you’d like to be better at, this book will sharpen your training and development.

    Click here to check out Mind Gym, and optimize yours!

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  • Anti-Aging Myths This Dermatologist Wants You To Stop Believing

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    Dermatologist Dr. Sam Ellis lays all bare:

    Bare-faced lies?

    Obviously, we are hearing from a dermatologist here, so the focus is on skin aging specifically. We may well also not want to age our brain, joints, etc, but that’s not what this one is about.

    So, without further ado, here are the myths she wants to bust:

    • “Medical grade skincare”: the term “medical grade” is a marketing term and does not indicate superior efficacy or better ingredients.
    • “Expensive skincare is more effective”: price does not always correlate with effectiveness; some high-end products justify their cost, but many do not.
    • “More products = better results”: using too many products can reduce effectiveness and cause irritation; a simple routine with sunscreen and a retinoid is key.
    • “Drink more water for better skin”: if you’re dehydrated, then yes, hydrate—but drinking excessive water does not improve skin appearance beyond normal hydration levels.
    • “You don’t need anti-aging products until you see signs of aging”: starting skincare early, especially sun protection, helps maintain youthful skin longer.
    • “Wrinkles are the first signs of aging”: hyperpigmentation and sagging are often more significant early indicators of aging than wrinkles.
    • “Skincare is all you need for anti-aging”: by “skincare” here she means creams, lotions, tonics, etc, and recommends other treatments such as laser treatment and even Botox*.
    • “Non-prescription retinoids are a waste of time”: over-the-counter retinoids like retinol and retinal can still be effective alternatives to prescription retinoids.
    • “You must use retinoids every night”: retinoids are effective even when used a few times per week, depending on individual tolerance.

    *We’re not convinced about the Botox; we’ll have to do a deep-dive research review one of these days!

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    Take care!

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